Under Siege
Under Siege: P.L.O. Decisionmaking During the 1982 War
Lebanon
Under Siege: P.L.O. Decisionmaking During the 1982 War
Rashid Khalidi
Columbia University Press
New York
Columbia University Press
Publishers Since 1893
New York Chichester, West Sussex
cup.columbia.edu
Copyright © 1986 Columbia University Press
Preface to the 2014 Reissue © 2014 Columbia University Press
All rights reserved
E-ISBN 978-0-231-53595-3
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Khalidi, Rashid.
Under siege : PLO decisionmaking during the 1982 war : with a new preface by the author / Rashid Khalidi.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-231-16669-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) —
ISBN 978-0-231-53595-3 (e-book)
1. Lebanon—History—Israeli intervention, 1982–1985.
2. Munazzamat al-Tahrir al-Filastiniyah. 3. Palestinian Arabs—Lebanon—Politics and government. I. Title.
DS87.53.K48 2014
956.05’2—dc23
2013023427
A Columbia University Press E-book.
CUP would be pleased to hear about your reading experience with this e-book at cup-ebook@columbia.edu.
Cover design by Martin Hinze Cover image: The Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) firing position at Ba’abda near Beirut, Lebanon, during shelling of PLO positions, 1982. © Micha Bar Am/Magnum photos
References to websites (URLs) were accurate at the time of writing. Neither the author nor Columbia University Press is responsible for URLs that may have expired or changed since the manuscript was prepared.
Contents
Preface to the 2014 Reissue
Preface
Introduction
1. The P.L.O. and the Lebanese Before the 1982 War
2. The Occupation of South Lebanon and the Siege of Beirut: A Military Overview
3. P.L.O. Decisions: The Military Inputs
4. June 1982: The Decision to Leave Beirut
5. July 1982: The Decision to Accept the Habib Plan
6. Wartime Decisions and Their Consequences
Appendix
List of Abbreviations
Cast of Characters
Notes
Bibliography
Supplementary Bibliography
Index
Preface to the 2014 Reissue
Over thirty years have passed since the events described in this book, and more than a quarter of a century since it was first published in 1986. While a great deal has changed since then, much remains unchanged. At the same time, many of the crucial components and lessons of the Lebanese conflict—including the Israeli-Palestinian war, which for nearly fifteen years was fought primarily on Lebanese soil—seem to have been completely forgotten.
As I write these words in mid-2013, Lebanon is mercifully no longer subjected to a brutal, many-sided sectarian and proxy war. It is also no longer suffering from foreign military occupation, as it had been in 1982 and for many years thereafter. Unfortunately, the country’s fragile stability and its complex inter-sectarian balance are today being sorely tested by neighboring Syria’s descent into a hellish civil war—one that in some ways mirrors Lebanon’s own previous experiences.
Lebanon’s years of conflict, lasting from 1975 to 1990, offer many unlearned insights about the evils of sectarianism that Syrian and international actors should have taken into account in Syria over these past two years, but did not. Similar lessons were also ignored from 2003 onwards in Iraq by the American occupiers and many Iraqis. As the American occupation authorities and their Iraqi protégés re-engineered Iraq’s political system to their advantage, they willingly adopted many of the worst aspects of Lebanon’s political sectarianism. What was thus established in Iraq was a deeply flawed confessional model that is essentially based on the “divide and rule” practices of the worst era of French colonialism, a system which contributed significantly to igniting three terrible sectarian civil wars in Lebanon between 1860 and 1975. This model has deepened and exacerbated existing societal fissures between different Iraqi religious sects and ethnicities: Sunnis, Shi’ites, Christians, Arabs, Kurds, Turcomans, and others. Of course, this imposed model did not birth a new, unified, federal, and democratic Iraq from the rubble of decades of Ba’thist tyranny, sanguinary warfare with Iran, and devastating American wars and sanctions. It instead helped generate massacres along religious lines, ethnic cleansing, the flight of millions of people from their homes, and the de facto partition of the country. Syria is currently prey to similar agonies.
Failure to avoid the pitfalls of sectarian, religious, and ethnic conflict—combined with external intervention—caused Lebanon to implode, followed by Iraq and now Syria. Significant elements of these three societies have been systematically pulverized in an analogous fashion. In all these cases, the destruction has overwhelmed and annihilated much of the painstakingly constructed modern infrastructure of government (some of it dating back to the Tanzimât reforms of the late Ottoman era); multiple layers of civil society as well as intellectual and cultural life; and vast areas of the economy, all while impoverishing and displacing large sectors of the population. The devastation of these three societies was the cumulative consequence of generations of poor governance and failed national leadership, the breakdown of unifying national narratives, and persistent and aggressive interference by foreign powers. All of these factors have produced savage civil wars in each country. Only many years after its own fifteen-year ordeal ended in 1990 was Lebanon able to regain a degree of internal equilibrium, however precarious.
In 2000, Israel ended its occupation of large parts of southern Lebanon. This occupation, which had begun on a smaller scale with the military incursion in 1978, reached its apogee and widest extent during the 1982 Israeli invasion, which is the backdrop to this book. The events of May 2000 marked the first and only time that Israel has ever withdrawn its military forces from occupied territory without any Arab or international quid pro quo. This tally includes Israel’s 2005 military redeployment from the Gaza Strip, since it did not fully end its occupation of, or cede its control over, that small region.1 What many in the Arab world learned from Lebanon’s harrowing experience is that only unremitting armed resistance can force Israel to withdraw from territory it occupies. That lesson was embraced in particular by many Palestinians who watched the successful military exploits of several militant groups, most notably the Lebanese Shi’ite Hizballah movement, against Israeli occupation forces in southern Lebanon. The creation and rise of Hizballah was a direct consequence of Israel’s invasion and the expansion of its occupation which followed the 1982 war.2 Influenced by the war’s outcome and even more so by Hizballah’s victory in driving Israeli troops out of southern Lebanon, many of these Palestinian observers subsequently gravitated to armed radical groups like Islamic Jihad and Hamas, which had not even been established in the mid-1980s when this book was written. These groups have now become a powerful, even dominating, force in Palestinian politics. Unlike Hizballah in southern Lebanon, however, they have not yet proven themselves capable of parlaying armed resistance into completely ending Israeli occupation and control over any part of the territories occupied since 1967. Whether their military capabilities have even succeeded in deterring Israeli military action, or indeed whether they provoke its intensification, is a matter of a sharp and continuing Palestinian internal debate.
But for many other Palestinians, the 1982 war demonstrated the futility of the idea of armed resistance. Such individuals turned even more resol
utely than before to a path of compromise and negotiations, producing a series of agreements with Israel that culminated with the so-called “Oslo Accords.” To the surprise of some, these accords, which were ostensibly meant to lead to peace and an end to the occupation, resulted in a re-invigorated and strengthened Israeli occupation regime. In the shadow of these agreements, and in some measure because of them, the Jewish settler population in the West Bank and Arab East Jerusalem has nearly tripled—from about 200,000 at the time of the Madrid peace conference in 1991 to almost 600,000 presently.3
The Oslo Accords and the intensified regime of Israeli occupation and settlement that has emerged from them are now seen by most Palestinians as highly inimical to their national interests and aspirations. Nevertheless, many others still cling to the Palestinian Authority that is the centerpiece of this post-Oslo regime, for reasons ranging from the opportunistic to the idealistic. But the perceived failure of the negotiating route adopted by the PLO since the 1980s (with its roots in crucial Palestinian decisions of the early and mid-1970s to favor a path of negotiations) has inevitably strengthened the alternatives. These alternatives range from popular mass nonviolent resistance to the Israeli military occupation; through protests and efforts to use boycotts, divestments, and sanctions against Israel; to armed resistance to Israel’s unremitting control over Palestinian territories and populations. From this, we can see that Palestinians learned a plethora of different lessons from the 1982 war and its aftermath in Lebanon.
The Lebanon war also clearly had an impact on the Israeli public, as is attested by the massive public demonstrations subsequent to the Sabra and Shatila massacres as well as the political eclipse of the politicians responsible for the war, notably Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Defense Minister Ariel Sharon (although the latter’s absence from politics proved to be temporary).4 However, it is questionable whether the politicians ultimately responsible for Israel’s security really learned anything profound from the experience of Lebanon in 1982, or from those of the years that followed for that matter. A 2012 documentary film entitled The Gatekeepers features interviews with all of the six men who, from 1981–2011, were directors of the Israeli General Security Service (the Shin Bet or Shabak), the intelligence agency that maintains Israel’s iron control of the millions of Palestinians under occupation. The film shows that these former domestic intelligence chiefs are fully aware that occupation inevitably and thoroughly corrupts the occupying society, and that the use of force against the Palestinians is ultimately futile.5 But as Israel’s occupation of the West Bank, Arab East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip entered its forty-seventh year in June 2013, most Israeli political leaders and much of Israeli society appear to act as if they were blithely unaware of any perils. This is the case despite warnings from two former Israeli prime ministers, Ehud Barak and Ehud Olmert, that continuing the status quo will lead inevitably to apartheid.6 However, unlike the occupation of southern Lebanon, in Palestine the occupation shows no signs of being wound up at any time in the foreseeable future. In fact, quite the contrary: it is more entrenched today than ever.
Propositions that Palestinian nationalism can be suppressed by a combination of force, intimidation, and cooptation (all justified by an endlessly expansive definition of Israel’s “security” needs) and that the occupation and colonization of Palestinian lands can be indefinitely perpetuated, while often unspoken, are central to the thinking of nearly all elements of Israel’s political leadership, whether from the right or the “left.” It was a particularly aggressive version of these tenets, propounded by then-Defense Minister Sharon, which animated Israel’s 1982 invasion of Lebanon. The ideological hold of these beliefs on the Israeli elite was perhaps slightly weakened for a time by the later unarmed Palestinian popular uprising—the first intifada—which started in 1987. The profound effect of the 1987–1991 uprising on Israeli and international public opinion unequivocally showed that the occupation in its then-current form was simply unsustainable.
The impact of the 1982 war and the first intifada taken together undoubtedly undermined these certainties among many sectors of the Israeli public. However, as I showed in a recent book, Brokers of Deceit: How the United States Has Undermined Peace in the Middle East, Israel’s leaders from the early 1990s and onwards clearly were not fully weaned from these propositions.7 Instead, that book explains how and why in subsequent decades they, while strongly supported by the United States, chose to impose terms on the Palestinians that were based on the rigid ideas of Menachem Begin originally put forward in the late 1970s. These concepts were designed to create an indefinite occupation, one inextricably linked to flexible but permanent Israeli security control of the occupied territories and to untrammeled colonial settlement in them. The Palestinians meanwhile are permitted no more than a simulacrum of “autonomy” under these terms, particularly embodied in a “Palestinian Authority” (PA) that does not and cannot prevent continued colonization of Palestinian lands and the constant incursions of the Israeli security forces into supposedly “autonomous” areas. The final outcome envisaged by both the Israeli and U.S. governments, their insincere references to Palestinian statehood notwithstanding, would provide for ultimate Israeli security control while conceding only sham “sovereignty.”8
Adding insult to injury, this enduring oppression and immiseration is disguised by an unending stream of disingenuous and deceitful talk by both Israel and American leaders about negotiations and a “peace process” that are supposedly meant to lead to a putative Palestinian state. That state constantly recedes into the distance as a larger and larger proportion of Israel’s total Jewish population—currently almost 600,000 people, or over 10 percent—lives in homes heavily subsidized by the Israeli government on stolen Palestinian land in the occupied West Bank and East Jerusalem. Meanwhile, the Gaza Strip has remained under stringent Israeli security control despite being evacuated by Israeli troops and settlers in 2005, and its population is subject to severe movement and trade restrictions, as well as to regular punitive military assaults from air, land, and sea. These measures are justified as a response to the occasional, largely futile, rocket attacks launched from Gaza against neighboring Israeli towns and cities.
Whether in the West Bank or in the Gaza Strip, Israel’s politicians and military officials appear to have learned precious little from the 1982 war and onwards about how to deal with the Palestinian people. The only probable exception may have been superficial tactical lessons in urban warfare in heavily populated civilian areas, a type of conflict the Israeli military had not engaged in for decades before the fierce battles in Sidon and on the outskirts of Beirut. Rather than reflecting on the more profound import of the 1982 war, these leaders continue to rely primarily on the systematic and rote use of force and intimidation, leavened by measures of co-optation and token “concessions.” The powerful hammer of Israel’s massive security services and armed forces seems to be virtually the only tool considered for use by Israeli leaders, for whom everything appears to be a nail where the Palestinians are concerned.
Similarly, American policy makers seem to have either ignored or forgotten the many potential lessons of the 1982 episode. The disastrous American military intervention in Lebanon, launched together with French and Italian forces, started off in September of that year with one strictly limited objective: the evacuation of PLO forces and cadres from Lebanon. This had been linked to an explicit American commitment to ensure the protection of the Palestinian civilians left behind in Beirut’s refugee camps. Once the main American objective of the PLO’s removal from Beirut was achieved, U.S. troops immediately withdrew, which forced the allied French and Italian forces to follow suit, and the commitment to protect Palestinians was disregarded. This withdrawal was almost immediately followed by the horrific massacres of nearly 1,400 Palestinian and Lebanese civilians in the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps in the wake of Lebanese President-elect Bashir Gemayel’s assassination and the subsequent Israeli occupation of W
est Beirut.9 This slaughter was the work of right-wing, Israeli-allied Lebanese militias that were introduced into these camps by the Israeli forces occupying and fully controlling the area. Palestinian leaders had repeatedly warned that such massacres were likely once PLO military forces withdrew, hence their explicit demand for American guarantees for the safety of the civilians in the camps.10 Driven by a fully justified sense of shame and guilt over their failure to prevent this bloodbath, U.S. policy makers immediately returned American troops and the rest of the multinational forces to Beirut.
This second armed intervention ultimately led to an American attempt to impose a one-sided peace treaty with Israel on a pliable Lebanese government, followed by American military involvement on one side of the rekindled Lebanese civil war. The subsequent American effort was based on a thoroughly flawed reading of Lebanon’s sectarian political scene, a serious underestimation of the residual power of Syria, and a gross overestimation of the ability of the United States, Israel, and their Lebanese allies to affect outcomes. This entire discreditable episode was sealed by the deaths of hundreds of American marines, diplomats, academics, clergymen, and others killed and held hostage in a spate of ruthless suicide bombings, assassinations, and kidnappings in Beirut. The ignominious withdrawal of U.S. troops ensued soon after and the never-implemented Lebanese-Israeli treaty thereafter collapsed. This ill-considered American military and diplomatic intervention in Lebanon, in coordination with Israel’s own disastrous occupation of Lebanon, produced lasting conflicts between the U.S. and various Lebanese forces, notably Hizballah, that still have ongoing consequences.
Some senior policy makers in the Reagan administration were clearly sobered by the results of the 1982–1984 American interventions in Lebanon. However, what should have been the principal long-term lesson of this bitter experience—not to intervene militarily in complex internecine conflicts in Middle Eastern and neighboring countries whose internal dynamics were only dimly understood—clearly did not register on many of those who followed them in high office. This was amply shown by the even more disastrous U.S. military interventions in Iraq and Afghanistan during the neoconservative era of unbridled American self-assertion presided over by George W. Bush. Indeed, precisely the wrong lessons—ones about the supposed merits of the Lebanese confessional system—were adopted by some American policy makers and gratuitously misapplied decades later to Iraq with ruinous consequences. The other lesson that the failed Lebanon adventure should have taught—that a just and lasting peace cannot be imposed by fiat by Israel, even if it is strongly supported by the U.S.—has also been studiously ignored by American policy makers in dealing with the Palestinians since 1991, with disastrous results for the Palestinians and for the prospects of lasting peace between them and the Israelis. This is one of the main conclusions of my most recent book, Brokers of Deceit.